The War of Actium

33–32 BC: The Collapse of the Second Triumvirate

The Second Triumvirate - Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus - forged in 43 BC after Philippi, unraveled as personal ambitions clashed.

Lepidus’s marginalization in 36 BC left Octavian and Antony as rivals. Antony’s alliance with Cleopatra, solidified by their twins born in 40 BC, deepened his eastern power base, but his lavish patronage - ceding Roman territories to her children - alienated Rome. Octavian seized Antony’s will from the Vestal Virgins in 32 BC, revealing bequests to Cleopatra’s offspring and his burial plans in Alexandria.

Suetonius notes the political coup: “Octavian read it aloud, branding Antony a traitor to Rome” (Augustus, 17). Declaring war on Cleopatra - not Antony - to avoid civil war optics, Octavian rallied Italy’s legions and populace, framing the conflict as a defense against foreign tyranny. Antony, with Cleopatra, prepared in Greece, amassing 500 ships and 100,000 men.

 

32 BC: Mobilization and Strategy

Octavian, advised by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, mobilized 400 ships and 80,000 troops, leveraging Italy’s resources and veteran loyalty. Antony’s strategy relied on his larger fleet - heavy quinqueremes suited for ramming - and eastern wealth, positioning his forces at Actium on Greece’s western coast.

Cleopatra’s presence, with 60 Egyptian ships, bolstered his numbers but sowed dissent among Roman officers wary of her influence. Appian captures the tension: “Antony’s legions wavered, torn between Rome and Egypt” (Civil Wars, 5.112). Octavian’s propaganda - depicting Antony as enslaved by a foreign queen - eroded his rival’s support, setting the stage for a decisive clash.

 

31 BC: Naval Showdown (September 2)

The Battle of Actium unfolded in the Ambracian Gulf, where Antony’s fleet anchored to guard his supply lines. His strategy aimed to break Octavian’s blockade using his ships’ size and bronze rams, planning a frontal assault to scatter the enemy. Agrippa, commanding Octavian’s lighter liburnians, countered with mobility: his fleet avoided direct engagement, harassing Antony’s line with fire-ships and archers to disrupt cohesion. Plutarch describes Agrippa’s tactics: “He danced around their hulks, striking and retreating” (Life of Antony, 66). Antony’s formation - cramped by the gulf’s narrow exit - faltered as Cleopatra’s squadron broke ranks mid-battle, fleeing south with her treasure-laden ships. Antony followed, abandoning his fleet in a bid to escape with her.

Agrippa seized the moment: his liburnians encircled the leaderless Punic ships, using speed and grappling hooks - refined from Naulochus - to immobilize and board them.

Appian narrates the rout: “Flames consumed their decks… 300 ships fell to Octavian” (Civil Wars, 5.121).

Antony’s remaining 19 legions and 12,000 cavalry, stranded ashore, surrendered within days. Octavian lost fewer than 5,000 men, securing a victory through naval agility and psychological collapse rather than brute force. The battle’s brevity - hours rather than days - underscored Agrippa’s strategic brilliance over Antony’s cumbersome reliance on size.

 

30 BC: Egypt’s Conquest

Antony and Cleopatra retreated to Alexandria, their forces depleted. Octavian pursued, invading Egypt in 30 BC with minimal resistance. Antony’s suicide - plunging a sword into his chest after a false report of Cleopatra’s death - and Cleopatra’s death by asp bite followed, ending their resistance.

Suetonius records Octavian’s restraint: “He spared their children, claiming Rome’s prize” (Augustus, 17). Egypt’s annexation enriched Rome with grain and gold, cementing Octavian’s supremacy.

 

29–27 BC: Octavian’s Triumph

Returning to Rome in 29 BC, Octavian celebrated a triple triumph: Illyricum, Actium, Egypt and assumed the title Augustus in 27 BC, marking the empire’s birth. The war’s spoils settled veterans, stabilizing Italy without the confiscations that fueled the Sicilian War.