The Sicilian War

42–40 BC: Post-Philippi Power Struggles

Following the triumviral victory over Brutus and Cassius in 42 BC, Octavian, Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus divided Rome’s domains: Octavian took the west, Antony the east, and Lepidus Africa. Octavian’s task—resettling 100,000 veterans—provoked unrest when he confiscated Italian lands, alienating the plebs and displaced elites. Sextus Pompeius, son of Pompey the Great, exploited this discontent. Controlling Sicily with a fleet of 300 ships—bolstered by pirates and Marian exiles—he disrupted Rome’s grain imports from Egypt and Africa. Appian notes his appeal: “Sextus offered refuge to the uprooted, turning outcasts into warriors” (Civil Wars, 5.25). Politically, he styled himself a liberator, challenging Octavian’s legitimacy while Antony, preoccupied with Cleopatra, offered no aid.

 

40–38 BC: Early Clashes and the Pact of Misenum

Octavian’s initial campaigns against Sextus faltered. In 40 BC, his fleet suffered losses off Rhegium, exposing his naval inexperience. Seeking respite, he negotiated the Pact of Misenum in 39 BC, granting Sextus control of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica in exchange for grain shipments. Suetonius records the fragility: “Octavian bought peace, but Sextus’s ambition endured” (Augustus, 16). The truce collapsed by 38 BC as Sextus resumed blockades, prompting Octavian to enlist Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, a brilliant tactician, to rebuild his navy.

 

38 BC: The Battle of Cumae

Octavian’s renewed offensive in 38 BC targeted Sextus’s fleet off Cumae. Sextus’s strategy relied on superior seamanship: his agile ships outmaneuvered Octavian’s heavier vessels, sinking dozens in a storm-aided ambush. Appian describes the defeat: “Waves and Sextus’s captains overwhelmed them… Octavian barely escaped” (Civil Wars, 5.85). This setback underscored Rome’s reliance on Sicilian grain and Agrippa’s need for innovation.

 

37 BC: Preparations and Naval Reform

Agrippa overhauled Octavian’s forces, constructing a sheltered harbor at Lake Avernus—the Portus Julius—to train 20,000 oarsmen and build 150 ships. He introduced the harpax, a grappling hook fired by catapults, to neutralize Sextus’s mobility, turning naval battles into infantry engagements. Plutarch praises the foresight: “Agrippa armed the sea with steel, binding foe to friend” (Life of Antony, 65). This preparation shifted the war’s momentum, setting the stage for a decisive confrontation.

 

36 BC: The Showdown Off Sicily

The war’s climax came on September 3, 36 BC, at Naulochus, near Messana. Sextus deployed 300 ships, relying on speed and ramming tactics to disrupt Octavian’s 260-vessel fleet. Agrippa countered with a defensive formation: his liburnians—light, fast ships—formed a tight line, baiting Sextus into close combat. The harpax then immobilized Punic ships, enabling Roman marines to board and overwhelm crews. Appian narrates the turning point: “Hooks snared their hulls… the battle became a slaughter” (Civil Wars, 5.121). Octavian’s fleet sank or captured 280 of Sextus’s ships, losing only 28. Sextus fled to Asia with a remnant, later executed by Antony’s agents in 35 BC. Naulochus’s naval brilliance—combining technology and discipline—secured Sicily and Rome’s breadbasket.

 

36–35 BC: Political Triumph and Repercussions

Victory at Naulochus eliminated Sextus as a rival, strengthening Octavian’s grip on the west. He sidelined Lepidus, stripping him of power after a mutiny attempt, and leveraged the war’s spoils to settle veterans without further confiscations—a political masterstroke that restored public favor. Antony’s absence left Octavian poised to dominate the triumvirate, though their rivalry loomed. Appian reflects: “Sicily’s fall marked Octavian’s rise” (Civil Wars, 5.132).